Attitude towards hijras and their reciprocal perceptions

Abstract

In Pakistan, hijras have legally attained third gender position yet they have marginalised and stigmatised status in cultural context. The aim in the present research was to explore people’s attitude towards hijras and reciprocal perceptions by hijras with the premise that their marginalization and isolation and developing hijra identity is function of these. Present research was conducted in two parts: In Part I, aim was studying people’s attitudes (based on five studies) and in Part II studying hijras’ reciprocal perceptions. Twelve focus group discussions (10 of general people and 2 of hijras) helped in generating item pool to develop Likert type rating scales by using exploratory factor analysis (N = 350): (i) Attitudes toward Hijras Scale and (ii) Myths related to Hijras Scale related to hijras in Study 1 and 2, respectively. For attitudes the factors so generated were Rights and Status, Social Distance, and Sexual Issues; and for myths three factors were Asexuality, Nature, and Saintly qualities of hijras. All items pertaining to these scales referred to third gender status of hijras not as male to female transgenders (MtF TGs). Correlation between both measures in assumed direction suggested their construct validity. In Study 3 (N = 186 university students), correlates and predictors of attitudes were studied. As assumed extremism, religiosity, traditional gender role attitudes, myths related to hijras, and masculinity significantly negatively predicted attitudes signifying the psycho-social context of attitudes in Pakistan. Gender role attitudes, religiosity, and belief in myths related to hijras had significant mediating role for extremism in predicting attitudes. Men and those with extrinsic social religious orientation had more negative attitudes towards hijras than their counterparts. Moderating role of religious orientation, gender, concept of “who are hijras?”, and level of interaction with hijras for correlates in predicting attitudes was also explored. All hypotheses were proved for attitudes based on Sexual Issues subscale showing that in socio-cultural context rules for sexuality are strongly held as core values than of gender expression that effect hijras’ lack of acceptance in the society. In Study 4, attitudes toward MtF TGs were studied (N = 186) through adapting and translating Attitude towards Transwoman Scale (Winter et al., 2009). Significant positive relationship of ATS-U with AHS was found as an indicator of convergent validity of both measures. Assumptions based on relationship of attitude towards MtF TGs with extremism, religiosity, gender role attitudes, gender differences, and differences along religious orientation were refuted which were otherwise proved for attitudes towards hijras in Study 3. Cross-cultural comparison with eight countries (Winter et al., 2009) showed that Pakistani sample had the most negative attitudes towards MtF TGs than other countries. In Study 5 (N = 1034 from five regions of Pakistan), individual differences in attitudes and belief in myths related to hijras along demographic variables. Women, educated, and older participants had more tolerant attitudes towards hijras than their counterparts. Gender played a role of moderator for demographic variables in predicting attitudes. In all studies of Part 1, large percentage of participants believed in myth that hijras were intersexed/hermaphrodite than MtF TGs. Those with such a belief had more positive attitudes and strong belief in saintly characteristics of hijras than their counterparts. Those who interacted more with hijras were in favour of their rights and better status, but not accepting them because of their sexual issues. In Part 2, hijras’ (N = 143) perception of people’s attitudes was studied through biographical interviews and data on scales. Unlike people’s perception in Part I, all participants were transgenders, transsexuals, or gays except one was intersexed hijra (original). Hijras had more negative perception of attitudes than people’s actual attitudes. Hijras who were Zannanas, older, operating in non-specified areas, suffering from depression being hijra, perceiving them as homosexual, had not yet accepted their cross-gendered identity/tendencies, had regret being hijras, had desire to leave hijra community, etc. had most negative perception of attitudes than their counterparts. Most of hijras had experienced severe negative reactions from their families and significant others and had abandoned their original families to pursue their sexual interests and gendered expressions. Findings were discussed in the light of literature and cultural observations. This study will help in reducing inhibitions to work on tabooed areas shrouded under myths, religious, and cultural beliefs and will help government and nongovernment organization in implementation of welfare programs for hijra’s mental health and their mainstreaming